Increased amplitudes {resonance energy} at frequencies indicate particle masses, which are energy concentrations.
Hydrogen emits light in frequency series {spectra, atomic} {atomic spectra} {line spectrum}.
series
Frequencies 82000 cm^-1 to 110000 cm^-1 {Lyman series} are ultraviolet and start from ground state in shell 1. Frequencies 15000 cm^-1 to 28000 cm^-1 {Balmer series} are visible and start from ground state in shell 2. Frequencies 5000 cm^-1 to 12500 cm^-1 {Paschen series} are infrared and start from ground state in shell 3. Frequencies {Brackett series} can start from ground state in shell 4. Frequencies {Pfund series} can start from ground state in shell 5.
Rydberg formula
Hydrogen spectra, and similar electron-transition energy series, are regular {Rydberg formula}.
cause
Heat energy can put electrons into higher orbitals. Materials emit electromagnetic radiation when electrons fall back to lower orbitals.
temperature
In low-density gas, temperature change changes intensities but not frequencies. Intensity E at frequency is proportional to temperature T to fourth power: E = k * T^4.
density
Dense matter emits continuous frequency spectrum, because molecules interact. Dense-matter spectra depend only on temperature, because temperature determines interactions.
radiation temperature
Light at definite wavelength has definite temperature, because light is kinetic energy. Radiation temperature depends on beam solid angle and intensity, as well as wavelength.
Elements absorb light frequencies {absorption spectra}|.
Absorption lines {Fraunhofer line} of Sun elements make absorption spectrum.
Elements emit light frequencies {emission spectra}|.
Moving charges in atoms make magnetic fields that split spectrum peaks {fine structure}| {fine spectra}. Bigger nuclei make bigger magnetic fields and so make larger fine structure. Spin-orbit coupling and Zeeman effect also contribute to fine structure.
Atoms and molecules have temperature-caused random movements, so emission frequencies shift by Doppler effect {Doppler broadening}. Higher temperature makes more Doppler broadening. Higher mass makes less Doppler broadening. Higher frequency makes more Doppler broadening. Microwaves have lower frequencies than optical waves and so have lower Doppler broadening.
Hydrogen-atom electrons can be in 1s orbital or 1p orbital. Hydrogen-atom 1s-to-1p electronic transition has the smallest electronic-transition energy, equivalent to microwave photons. Microwaves have lower frequencies than optical waves and so have smaller Doppler broadening. This system is optimum to measure the fine-structure constant. Microwaves excite hydrogen-atom same-spin electrons from 1s to 1p orbitals {Lamb shift, electron} [1947] (Willis E. Lamb, Jr., and Robert Retherford) (Hans Bethe) to measure the fine-structure constant, which indicates virtual photons.
Electrons in outermost atom orbitals can jump to orbital with higher or lower energy level {electron transition}| {electronic transition} {transition, electron}, if new orbital is not full. Lower-energy orbital electron acquires energy from photon to go to higher-energy orbital. Higher-energy orbital electron loses energy to photon to fall to lower-energy orbital.
time
Collision, radiation, and other energies can send electron to higher-energy orbital in atom in 10^-12 seconds. Electron takes 10^-8 seconds to return to lower-energy orbital, emitting photon. Electronic transitions are random.
channel
Transition from one energy level to another emits or absorbs photons with quanta. Electronic transition can be direct and take one step {direct channel, transition} or go through intermediate steps {cross channel, transition}.
Electronic transitions naturally happen between orbitals differing by one angular-momentum unit {allowed state}, because photon carries that amount.
Transitions take longer to happen between certain orbits {forbidden state}|, because they differ by several angular-momentum units and one photon can carry only one unit.
Strong electric field can shift rotational-frequency lines {Stark effect}.
External magnetic field causes atom electrons to align and splits electron-energy level into slightly higher and slightly lower levels {Zeeman effect}. Magnetic field displaces spectral lines.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225